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<h1 id="wise-reflection"><a class="header" href="#wise-reflection">Wise Reflection</a></h1>
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<p><a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-15-trade.pdf"><img src="./includes/images/illustrations/ch-15-trade.jpg" alt="image" /></a></p>
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<p><em>Forerunners of the Middle Way<br />
Initial Stage of Practice 2:<br />
Yoniso-manasikāra</em></p>
<h2 id="the-role-of-reflection-in-a-wholesome-way-of-life"><a class="header" href="#the-role-of-reflection-in-a-wholesome-way-of-life">The Role of Reflection in a Wholesome Way of Life</a></h2>
<p>For people to find true happiness they must live their lives correctly
and relate to things properly, including their own personal lives, their
society, technology, and their natural environment. Those people who
live their lives correctly experience a personal happiness inherently
conducive to the happiness of others.</p>
<p>The expression to live one’s life correctly, or to relate to all things
properly, is a general or undetailed reference to spiritual practice.
For a clearer description one must separate and distinguish correct
practice into various minor activities, and examine many aspects of a
person’s life. It is useful therefore to describe the different parts of
spiritual practice, which together comprise the entirety of living one’s
life correctly. Hereby, one defines the subtleties of living correctly,
revealing the different aspects of proper practice.</p>
<p>From one perspective, to live one’s life is to struggle for survival, to
try and escape from oppressive and obstructive forces, and to discover
wellbeing. In brief, this aspect to life is the solving of problems or
the ending of suffering. Those people who are able to solve and escape
from problems correctly reach true success in life and live free from
suffering. Therefore, to live correctly and with success can be defined
as an ability to solve problems.</p>
<p>From another perspective, to live one’s life is to engage in various
activities, manifesting as different forms of physical and verbal
behaviour. When such activity is not expressed outwardly, then it
manifests internally, as mental behaviour. This refers to acts of body,
speech and mind, which are technically referred to as volitional
physical actions (<em>kāya-kamma</em>), verbal actions (<em>vacī-kamma</em>), and
mental actions (<em>mano-kamma</em>). Collectively, they are referred to as
kamma by way of the three ’doorways’ (<em>dvāra</em>).</p>
<p>From this perspective life consists of engaging in these three kinds of
actions. Those people who perform these three actions correctly live
their lives well. Therefore, to live correctly and with success can be
defined as knowing how to act, speak, and think – to be skilled at
performing physical actions (including one’s work and profession),
speaking (or communication in general), and thinking. {608}</p>
<p>From yet another perspective, an analysis of human life reveals that it
consists of various forms of cognition, of experiencing objects of
awareness or sense stimuli, which are collectively referred to as ’sense
objects’ (<em>ārammaṇa</em>). These sense impressions pass through or manifest
by way of the six sense bases (<em>āyatana</em>): the eye, ear, nose, tongue,
body, and mind. The receiving of these sense impressions consists of
seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, contacting tactile impressions, and
cognizing mind objects: i.e, to see, to hear, to smell, to taste, to
feel physical feelings, and to think.</p>
<p>The response and attitudes of people in regard to cognition of these
sense stimuli have a crucial bearing on their lives, conduct, and
fortune. If they respond to sense impressions solely with delight and
aversion, with likes and dislikes, the chain of distress is set in
motion. If they respond in the manner of recording information, however,
and see things according to the truth – see things according to cause
and effect – they will go in the direction of wisdom and towards a true
solution to problems.</p>
<p>A factor that is no less vital than the response and attitudes towards
sense impressions is the ability to select sense objects. For example,
one may incline towards and choose to listen to and watch those things
which gratify desire, or one may choose to listen to and observe those
things that support wisdom and enhance the quality of the mind.</p>
<p>From this perspective to live correctly and successfully can be defined
as knowing how to receive and select sense impressions – to be skilled
at seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, contacting tactile objects, and
thinking.</p>
<p>There is one more perspective to take into consideration. One way to
describe human life is to highlight the engagement and relationship to
phenomena in order to derive benefit from these things.</p>
<p>For most people the consumption or enjoyment of sense pleasures plays a
very significant role. When engaging with people or things in their
surroundings, whether this be their society or the natural environment,
most people seek to derive some kind of benefit or advantage from them
in order to satisfy their wishes or to gratify their desires. In other
words, when they wish to satisfy desires they go out and engage with
these people and things.</p>
<p>The preceding factor – of looking at life as a process of cognition –
contains two aspects: that of pure cognition, say of seeing and hearing,
and that of engagement, say of looking and listening. The skill of
receiving and selecting sense impressions (e.g. a skill at seeing or
hearing) is related to this factor of engagement.</p>
<p>To engage with or to consume things properly is a vital factor in
determining and shaping a person’s life and degree of happiness.
Therefore, to live correctly and successfully can be defined as being
skilled in engaging with and relating to things. In the context of
society this refers to knowing how to relate and associate with other
people. In the context of material things and the natural environment
this refers to knowing how to use and consume things properly.</p>
<p>In sum, a correct and successful way of life encompasses several
subsidiary forms of behaviour and consists of various aspects,
notably:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>From the perspective of escaping from problems, one is skilled at
solving them.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>From the perspective of performing actions, one is skilled at
thinking, speaking (or communicating), and performing physical
deeds.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>From the perspective of receiving sense impressions, one is skilled
at seeing, listening, smelling, tasting, contacting tactile
impressions, and thinking.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>From the perspective of engagement or consumption, one is skilled at
using and consuming things, and at relating to other people. {609}</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>To practise these various aspects of life properly is referred to as
’living one’s life correctly’, ’knowing how to live’, or ’being skilled
at conducting one’s life’. According to Buddha-Dhamma, a life lived in
such a manner is considered a virtuous life.</p>
<p>These various aspects of life, or aspects of spiritual practice, can be
summed up by the phrase: ’knowing how to think’ or ’being skilled at
reflection’. They all involve the process of thinking, which is a vital
factor for living one’s life correctly. Thinking plays an important role
on many levels, including:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>In the context of cognition, thinking is the meeting point, where
various information and data gathers and assembles. It is where data
is analyzed, shaped, and applied.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In the context of volitional actions, thinking is the starting
point, which leads to outward verbal and physical expressions – to
speech and physical action. Moreover, it is the command centre,
which determines or controls speech and physical deeds, according to
one’s thoughts.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In the relationship between these two forms of behaviour, thinking
is the centre point – it is the link between cognition and
volitional actions. When one experiences things by way of the sense
bases, and then gathers, processes, and analyzes this sense data,
thinking dictates the consequent outward expressions of speech and
physical actions.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>In sum, correct thinking or the skill of reflection is the seat of
administration in regard to correct living in its entirety. It is the
leader, guide and director for all other aspects of right practice. When
one is able to think correctly, one is also able to speak correctly, act
correctly, and solve problems correctly. One is skilled at seeing,
hearing, eating, using material things, consuming things, and
associating with others – one is skilled at living. A skill in thinking
and reflection leads to a virtuous life.</p>
<p>A decisive factor determining a person’s skill in regard to volitional
action is spiritual balance. Generally speaking, in this context the
terms ’skill’ and ’balance’ have the same meaning. To act skilfully is
to act in a correct, even way, giving rise to desired results according
to one’s intentions and objectives. One acts in a way that is accurate,
coherent, direct, and consistent, enabling one to reach one’s goal in
the most optimum way, without creating any kinds of harm or faults.</p>
<p>In the context of reaching one’s goal, the Buddhist teachings give great
emphasis to the characteristics of faultlessness, freedom from
affliction, and suitability, the meanings of which are encompassed in
the word ’spiritual balance’. Thus the term ’skill in conducting one’s
life’ can be defined as ’living a balanced life’: to live with
moderation and in a suitable way in order to attain the goal of life in
a truly blameless and joyful manner.</p>
<p>The technical term for a life of balance, for suitable practice, or for
a virtuous life is the ’middle way’ (<em>majjhimā-paṭipadā</em>), which refers
to the Path (<em>magga</em>): the Noble Eightfold Path. The Middle Way is the
virtuous, sublime life, free from harm and affliction, leading to utter
safety and complete happiness.</p>
<p>Buddha-Dhamma teaches that in order to live correctly or to lead a
virtuous life one must pass through a process of spiritual training and
study. One can say that the Path arises as a result of spiritual
training. Just as skilful reflection is the guiding principle of a
virtuous life or of the Path, so too, cultivating one’s skills in the
area of thinking is the leading factor in formal spiritual training
(<em>sikkhā</em>). {610}</p>
<p>Within the process of spiritual training, developing a skill in
reflection leads to correct understanding, correct ideas, and even
correct beliefs, which are collectively referred to as ’right view’
(<em>sammā-diṭṭhi</em>), which is the mainstay of a virtuous life in its
entirety. The cultivation of right view is the gist of wisdom
development, which is at the heart of spiritual training.</p>
<p>A skill in reflection involves many methods of thinking and analysis.
Developing such skill in reflection is a unique form of spiritual
training and cultivation.</p>
<h2 id="the-role-of-reflection-in-spiritual-training-and-wisdom-development"><a class="header" href="#the-role-of-reflection-in-spiritual-training-and-wisdom-development">The Role of Reflection in Spiritual Training and Wisdom Development</a></h2>
<p>Before discussing the various methods of thinking, let us review the
role of thinking in spiritual training, especially in the area of wisdom
development, which is the core of such training.</p>
<h3 id="commencement-of-training"><a class="header" href="#commencement-of-training">Commencement of Training</a></h3>
<p>The essence of spiritual training is self-development, with wisdom
development at its core. The key elements of such training are correct
understanding, opinions, ways of thinking, attitudes, and values, which
benefit one’s life and society and conform to truth. In short, this
refers to ’right view’ (<em>sammā-diṭṭhi</em>).</p>
<p>When one understands things correctly, one’s thoughts, speech, and
physical actions – that is, all of one’s actions – will be correct,
virtuous, and beneficial, leading to the end of suffering.</p>
<p>Conversely, if one has incorrect understanding, values, attitudes, and
ways of thinking – collectively referred to as ’wrong view’
(<em>micchā-diṭṭhi</em>) – all of one’s actions, including one’s thoughts,
speech, and physical actions, will also be incorrect. Instead of solving
problems and ending suffering, one will create more suffering,
accumulate problems, and increase trouble.</p>
<p>Right view can be separated into two levels:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>First, those kinds of views, thoughts, opinions, beliefs,
preferences, and values which are connected to an awareness of one’s
actions and the effects of such actions, or which foster a sense of
personal accountability. One sees things correctly in the light of
Dhamma teachings. The precise term for this kind of view is
’knowledge of being an owner of one’s deeds’ (<em>kammassakatā-ñāṇa</em>).
It is mundane right view (<em>lokiya-sammādiṭṭhi</em>) and pertains to the
level of moral conduct.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Second, those views and ways of thinking which help to discern how
all conditioned things exist in accord with the law of causality. It
is an understanding of things according to how they really are. One
is not biased by preferences and aversions or swayed by how one
wants things to be or not be. It is a knowledge in harmony with
natural truth and is technically referred to as ’knowledge
consistent with truth’ (<em>saccānulomika-ñāṇa</em>). It is right view
aligned with transcendent understanding and pertains to the level of
absolute truth.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>Likewise, there are two kinds of wrong view (<em>micchā-diṭṭhi</em>): those
views, notions, and values which deny a sense of personal accountability
– a refusal to admit one’s own responsibility; and an ignorance of the
world as it really is – the formation of deluded images according to
how one personally wants the world to be. {611}</p>
<p>In any case, the internal spiritual training of an individual begins
with and continues as a result of an engagement with his or her external
environment; it is dependent on external influences which act as a
source of motivation or as conditioning factors. If one receives
teachings, advice, and transmissions from correct sources, or if one is
able to select, discern, contemplate and engage with things properly,
right view (<em>sammā-diṭṭhi</em>) will arise and true training will ensue.</p>
<p>Conversely, if one receives incorrect teachings, advice and
transmissions, or if one in unable to reflect on, consider, and gain
insight into one’s experiences, wrong view (<em>micchā-diṭṭhi</em>) will arise
and one will train incorrectly or not train at all.</p>
<p>To review, there are two basic sources of spiritual training, which are
called the ’prerequisites of right view’:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>The external factor of the instruction of others (<em>paratoghosa</em>):
the words or utterance of others. This refers to social influences
and transmissions, for example from parents, teachers, friends,
associates, books, the media, and one’s culture. These outside
influences provide correct information and teachings and they
encourage one to go in a wholesome direction.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The internal factor of wise reflection (<em>yoniso-manasikāra</em>): to be
skilled at reflection; to apply proper methods of thinking and
reasoning.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Similarly, there are two sources to wrong training or to a lack of
spiritual training, which are the prerequisites of wrong view:
incorrect, unwholesome instruction by others and an absence of wise
reflection – an inability to reflect wisely.</p>
<h3 id="process-of-training"><a class="header" href="#process-of-training">Process of Training</a></h3>
<p>As mentioned above, the essence of spiritual training is right view.
When right view is firmly established, spiritual training proceeds
effectively.</p>
<p>This process is divided into three major stages, which collectively are
referred to as the three trainings or the threefold training:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Training in higher virtue (<em>adhisīla-sikkhā</em>): training in the area
of conduct, moral discipline, and uprightness in physical actions,
speech, and livelihood. It can be simply referred to as ’virtue’
(<em>sīla</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Training in higher mind (<em>adhicitta-sikkhā</em>): the training of the
mind, the cultivation of spiritual qualities, and the development of
mental strength, mental aptitude, and mental health. It can be
simply referred to as ’concentration’ or ’mental collectedness’
(<em>samādhi</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Training in higher wisdom (<em>adhipaññā-sikkhā</em>): the development of
wisdom, giving rise to a knowledge of things as they truly are, a
discernment of the causal nature of things, which enables one to
solve problems in line with cause and effect; a thorough
understanding of phenomena, to the extent that one is able to
liberate the mind from all clinging and attachment, eliminate mental
defilement, and bring an end to suffering – to live with a mind
that is free, pure, joyous and bright. It can be simply referred to
as ’wisdom’ (<em>paññā</em>).</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>The formulation of these three trainings is directly connected to the
teaching referred to as the Noble Path (<em>ariya-magga</em>): the ’supreme
way’, the ’noble method for solving problems belonging to the noble
ones’, or the ’path leading to the cessation of suffering and to the
state of awakening’.</p>
<p>The Noble Path contains eight essential factors or eight aspects of
practice:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Right view (<em>sammā-diṭṭhi</em>): correct views, ideas, opinions,
beliefs, attitudes and values; to see things according to causes and
conditions; to see things in harmony with truth or with reality.
{612}</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Right thought (<em>sammā-saṅkappa</em>): thoughts, considerations, and
motives which do not harm oneself or others, are not corrupted by
defilement, and are conducive to wellbeing and happiness, for
example: thoughts of renunciation, well-wishing, kindness, and
benefaction; pure, truthful and righteous thoughts; thoughts free
from selfishness, covetousness, anger, hatred, and malice.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Right speech (<em>sammā-vācā</em>): honest and upright speech; speech that
is not abusive, deceitful, divisive, slanderous, coarse, trivial, or
pointless; speech that is polite and gentle, promoting friendship
and harmony; rational, beneficial speech.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Right action (<em>sammā-kammanta</em>): righteous, beneficial actions;
non-oppressive, non-harmful actions; actions that build good
relationships, promote cooperation, and lead to a peaceful society.
Specifically, this refers to actions that are not involved in or
contributive to killing or physical injury, to violating the
belongings of others, or to violating the rights of others in regard
to their spouse or cherished items and people.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Right livelihood (<em>sammā-ājīva</em>): earning a living in righteous
ways, which do not cause trouble or harm to others.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Right effort (<em>sammā-vāyāma</em>): righteous effort, that is: to strive
to prevent and avoid unarisen evil, unwholesome qualities; to strive
to abandon and eliminate arisen evil, unwholesome qualities; to
strive to establish and foster unarisen wholesome qualities; and to
strive to cultivate, increase, and perfect arisen wholesome
qualities.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Right mindfulness (<em>sammā-sati</em>): to be vigilant and attentive; to
sustain attention on whichever necessary task one faces in the
moment; to be circumspect about one’s activities; to recollect those
virtuous, supportive, or required factors connected to a specific
activity; to not be absentminded, careless, or negligent. Most
notably, this refers to mindfulness fully attentive to one’s own
physical activities, feelings, state of mind, and thoughts. One does
not allow alluring or annoying sense impressions to lead one astray
or to cause confusion.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Right concentration (<em>sammā-samādhi</em>): firmly established attention;
the mind is focused on an activity or on an object of attention
(<em>ārammaṇa</em>); the mind is one-pointed, calm, relaxed, pure, bright,
and strong; it is malleable and engaged, ready for the effective
application of wisdom; it is not distracted, disturbed, confused,
stressed, rigid, or despondent.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>The threefold training is designed to bear fruit according to the
principles of practice inherent in the Noble Eightfold Path. This
training generates and develops the eight Path factors. A Dhamma
practitioner makes full use of these Path factors and gradually solves
problems until he or she reaches the complete end of suffering. The
relationship between the threefold training and the Eightfold Path is as
follows:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Training in higher virtue: aspects of training giving rise to right
speech, right action, and right livelihood. These three Path factors
are cultivated to the point where one reaches the standard of a
noble being in regard to moral conduct, discipline, and skilful
social interaction. This is the basis for developing the power of
mind.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Training in higher mind: aspects of training giving rise to right
effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. These three Path
factors are cultivated to the point where one reaches the standard
of a noble being in regard to spiritual qualities, power of mind,
mental capability, and mental health. This is the basis for
developing wisdom. {613}</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Training in higher wisdom: aspects of training giving rise to right
view and right thought. These two Path factors are cultivated to the
point where one reaches the standard of a noble being in regard to
wisdom. One’s mind is bright, joyous, and freed from all forms of
grasping and affliction; one reaches true deliverance of mind by way
of wisdom.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>As mentioned above, right view – the mainstay of spiritual training –
arises dependent on two factors (the prerequisites of right view), which
are the source, origin and starting point of practice. Therefore, in the
activities pertaining to spiritual training special emphasis should be
given to these two factors. Indeed, the expression ’providing training’
relates precisely to these two factors. As for the three stages of
training – <em>sīla</em>, <em>samādhi</em>, and <em>paññā</em> – they are used simply as
reference points for creating a supportive environment and for ensuring
that the direction of practice proceeds according to proper principles.</p>
<p>Based on this understanding one is able to outline spiritual training as
shown on
Figure <a href="#fig-outline-spiritual-training">Outline of Spiritual Training</a>.</p>
<div class="figure">
<p><span class="caption">Outline of Spiritual Training</span><a id="fig-outline-spiritual-training"></a>
<img src="./includes/images/diagrams/outline-spiritual-training.jpg" alt="image" /></p>
</div>
<h3 id="basic-elements-of-spiritual-training"><a class="header" href="#basic-elements-of-spiritual-training">Basic Elements of Spiritual Training</a></h3>
<p>From the above section we see that thinking or reflection comprises one
of the two initial factors or sources of spiritual training. To gain a
clear understanding of the vital role of thought, however, it should be
explained in conjunction with the second factor, of the teachings by
others:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, there are these two conditions giving rise to right view: the
words of others and wise reflection.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn1-1"><a href="#fn-fn1">1</a></sup> {614}</p>
<p><em>A. I. 88.</em></p>
<p>In reference to external factors, I know not of any other single
factor so conducive to great benefit as having a virtuous friend.</p>
<p>In reference to internal factors, I know not of any other single
factor so conducive to great benefit as wise reflection.</p>
<p><em>A. I. 17.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>These two prerequisites of right view can also be called the forerunners
to spiritual training. They are the wellspring of right view, which is
the starting point and key principle of spiritual practice in its
entirety. Let us review these factors in more depth:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>The words of others (<em>paratoghosa</em>): external motivation and
influence; teachings, advice, instruction, transmission, schooling,
proclamations, information, and news coming from external sources.
This also includes imitating or emulating others’ behaviour and
ideas. It is an external or social factor.</p>
<p>Examples of such sources of learning include: one’s parents,
teachers, mentors, friends, companions, co-workers, bosses, and
employees; famous and esteemed people; books, other forms of media,
and religious and cultural institutions. In this context, it refers
specifically to those external influences leading one in a correct,
wholesome direction and providing correct knowledge, and in
particular those enabling one to attain the second factor of wise
reflection.</p>
<p>A person with suitable attributes and qualities, who is able to
perform the function of instruction well, is called a virtuous
friend (<em>kalyāṇamitta</em>). Generally speaking, for a virtuous friend
to act effectively and succeed in instructing others, he or she must
be able to instil confidence in the student or practitioner, and
therefore the method of learning here is referred to as the ’way of
faith’.</p>
<p>If the persons offering instruction, for example parents or
teachers, are unable to establish a sense of trust in the pupil (or
child, as the case may be), who subsequently develops greater
interest and trust in another source of information and thinking,
say in the words of a movie star transmitted via the media, and if
this alternative information is bad or wrong, the process of
learning or training is beset by danger. The end result may be a
wrong form of learning or an absence of true learning.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Wise reflection (<em>yoniso-manasikāra</em>); skilful modes of thinking;
systematic thinking; the ability to contemplate and discern things
according to how they truly exist, for example the recognition that
a specific phenomenon ’exist just so’. One searches for causes and
conditions, inquires into the source of things, traces the complete
sequence of events, and analyzes things in order to see things as
they are and as conforming to the law of causality. One does not
attach to or distort things out of personal craving and clinging.
Wise reflection leads to wellbeing and an ability to solve problems.
This is an internal, spiritual factor and may be referred to as the
’way of wisdom’.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Of these two factors, wise reflection is essential and indispensable.
Spiritual training truly bears fruit and its goal is reached as a result
of wise reflection. Indeed, it is possible for wise reflection to
initiate spiritual training without the assistance of external
influences. If one relies on the first factor of external instruction,
it must lead to wise reflection for one’s training to reach completion.
Intuition, insight, and the discovery and realization of truth is
accomplished by way of wise reflection. {615}</p>
<p>Having said this, one should not underestimate the power of the first
factor, of the instruction by others, because only a minute number of
individuals do not need to rely on this factor – those who can progress
solely by the application of wise reflection. These individuals, like
the Buddha, are exceptional. Almost everyone in the world relies on the
instruction by others to help show the way.</p>
<p>All forms of formal and systematic education, both in the past and in
the present, and all forms of schooling in the field of the arts and
sciences are matters pertaining to this factor of the ’words of others’
(<em>paratoghosa</em>). The wholesome transmission of knowledge by way of
virtuous friends thus deserves the utmost care and attention.</p>
<p>A point that needs to be reiterated here is that in providing an
education or skilful instruction, a virtuous friend needs to constantly
keep in mind that this instruction must act as a catalyst for the
arising of wise reflection in the students.</p>
<h3 id="thinking-conducive-to-spiritual-training"><a class="header" href="#thinking-conducive-to-spiritual-training">Thinking Conducive to Spiritual Training</a></h3>
<p>Thinking is linked to and follows cognition. The process of cognition
begins at the point where a sense base (<em>āyatana</em>) encounters a sense
object (<em>ārammaṇa</em>). At this point consciousness arises (<em>viññāṇa</em>) –
the awareness of a sense object – for example seeing a form, hearing a
sound, or knowing a mental object. When this process is complete it is
called ’cognition’, or literally, according to the Pali, as ’contact’
(<em>phassa</em>).</p>
<p>With cognition there arises some form of sensation (<em>vedanā</em>), say of
pleasure and ease, suffering and discomfort, or a neutral feeling.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn2-1"><a href="#fn-fn2">2</a></sup>
At the same time, there arises perception (<em>saññā</em>) – the naming,
designation, or recognition of the sense object. From here there follows
thinking (<em>vitakka</em>) – thoughts, reflections and deliberations.</p>
<p>This process of cognition is the same, regardless of whether one
encounters and experiences something externally, or whether one thinks
of something and contemplates it in the mind.</p>
<p>Using the act of seeing as an example, this process can be illustrated
as follows (similar to earlier at Figure <a href="six-sense-spheres.html#fig-cognitive-process-simple">The Cognitive Process (Simple Form)</a> in Chapter 2. Six Senses).</p>
<blockquote>
<p><em>Eye (<em>āyatana</em>) +<br />
physical form (<em>ārammaṇa</em>) +<br />
seeing (<em>cakkhu-viññāṇa</em>) =<br />
contact (<em>phassa</em>) →<br />
sensation (<em>vedanā</em>) →<br />
perception (<em>saññā</em>) →<br />
thinking (<em>vitakka</em>)</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p>The act of thinking plays a very important role in determining a
person’s personality and way of life, as well as shaping society as a
whole. Thinking, therefore, is an essential factor in spiritual
training. Thinking, however, is itself determined by various factors and
conditions.</p>
<p>One factor which exerts a powerful influence on thinking is sensation
(<em>vedanā</em>), in particular the feelings of pleasure and pain.</p>
<p>Ordinarily, when people contact sense impressions and experience
feelings, unless other factors enter to correct or intercept the
process, these feelings determine the way a person thinks:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>If the feelings are pleasurable or comforting one delights in them;
one wishes to acquire or consume the object (this is craving –
<em>taṇhā</em> – in an affirmative sense).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>If the feelings are painful or oppressive one is averse to them; one
wishes to escape from or eliminate the object (this is craving in an
adversative sense). {616}</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>At this point a person creates elaborate thoughts and ideas about the
sense object acting as the source of that feeling. The object becomes
the focus of a person’s thinking, accompanied by <em>saññā</em> – memories and
perceptions of this object. These proliferations of thought follow the
course of the person’s likes and aversions. The determining factors for
thought are a person’s accumulated proclivities, prejudices, habits,
disposition, and mental defilements (collectively referred to as mental
formations – <em>saṅkhāra</em>). He or she thinks within the confines and
limitations and along the line of these mental formations. Expressions
of speech and physical actions may then follow in the wake of these
thoughts.</p>
<p>Even if these thoughts are not expressed as outward actions, they still
have an impact on a person’s mind. They limit and constrict the mind and
create various forms of mental distress, agitation, disturbance,
depression, and confusion. Thoughts related to specific subjects can
create mental bias and distortion, resulting in a failure to see things
according to the truth, while some thoughts may be tainted by greed or
hostility.</p>
<p>In the case that one experiences neutral sensations – neither
pleasurable nor painful – if one is not skilled at reflection and
allows oneself to remain under their influence, one’s thinking will be
aimless and incoherent or completely stifled. This is an unfavourable
and unwholesome situation, leading to problems and greater suffering.</p>
<p>The main factors of this process can be illustrated thus:</p>
<blockquote>
<p><em>Contact (<em>phassa</em>) →<br />
sensation (<em>vedanā</em>) →<br />
craving, both affirmative and adversative (<em>taṇhā</em>) →<br />
suffering (<em>dukkha</em>)</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p>For most people this process of compounding problems occurs almost
continually. In a single day it may occur repeatedly and countlessly.
The life of a person lacking spiritual training tends to be dominated
and determined by this way of thinking. It requires no intelligence,
understanding, or special capability. It is the most basic way in which
a human being operates. And the more a person has accumulated the habit
of thinking in this way, the easier this process unfolds automatically,
as if stuck in a pre-established rut.</p>
<p>Because this process functions without any guidance by mindfulness and
wisdom, it generates ignorance (<em>avijjā</em>). Rather than being conducive
to solving problems, it creates more problems and increases suffering.
It is antithetical to spiritual training. Technically, it is thus
referred to as the ’mode of conditionality leading to suffering’.</p>
<p>The basic attribute of this way of thinking is that it serves to gratify
craving. In sum it can be referred to as the ’process of thinking that
panders to craving’, ’thinking that causes problems’, or simply as the
’cycle of suffering’.</p>
<p>The beginning of spiritual training begins with the application of
mindfulness and wisdom. Here, a person no longer allows this
aforementioned process of thinking or mode of conditionality to function
unabated and unchecked. One uses mindfulness, wisdom, and other
spiritual factors to interrupt or reduce the flow of this way of
thinking, resulting in a severance of the cycle or a transformation and
altered course of thinking. One begins to be liberated – to no longer
be enslaved by this process of thinking. {617}</p>
<p>At first, an altered course of thinking may result from views or
traditional ways of thinking transmitted by external sources, say by
other people or social institutions, to which one adheres out of faith.
Generally speaking the most such external instruction can do is to deter
or restrain one from blindly following a course of thinking pandering to
craving, or perhaps it can provide one with an alternative fixed pattern
of thinking. But it does not necessarily lead to a progressive,
independent way of thinking. If the instruction is exceptional, however,
it can generate the kind of faith that leads people to think for
themselves.</p>
<p>An example of instruction that leads to a strictly prescribed,
unyielding form of faith, and is not a vehicle for further
contemplation, is to have others believe that everything in the world is
governed and controlled by some divine being or occurs randomly or by
accident. If one believes in such teachings, all one has to do is wait
for the will of God or leave everything up to fate. One need not
investigate or reflect on things.</p>
<p>Conversely, an example of instruction that generates a kind of faith
leading to contemplation is to have others believe that all things exist
according causes and conditions. If one believes this then no matter
what happens one will investigate and probe into the underlying causes
and conditions, and one will develop an increased knowledge and
understanding.</p>
<p>Wholesome thinking and contemplation induced by a faith in external
instruction begins with wise reflection (<em>yoniso-manasikāra</em>). In other
words, skilful instruction generates a faith leading to wise reflection.</p>
<p>With the arising of wise reflection, spiritual training has begun. From
this point a person applies and develops wisdom, which helps to solve
problems and is the path to the cessation of suffering. In a nutshell,
thinking that supports and promotes wisdom <em>is</em> spiritual training.</p>
<p>Wise reflection plays an especially important role by preventing feeling
(<em>vedanā</em>) from producing craving (<em>taṇhā</em>). When one applies wise
reflection, one experiences feeling but without it leading to craving.
And when there is no craving, one does not create fanciful ideas
(’mental proliferation’) subject to the power of craving.</p>
<p>When one severs thinking processes pandering to craving, skilful,
systematic reflection leads to the path of wisdom development and to the
end of suffering. The two kinds of thinking can be illustrated as shown
on
Figure <a href="#fig-two-kinds-of-thinking">Two Kinds of Thinking</a>.</p>
<div class="figure">
<p><span class="caption">Two Kinds of Thinking</span><a id="fig-two-kinds-of-thinking"></a>
<img src="./includes/images/diagrams/two-kinds-of-thinking.jpg" alt="image" /></p>
</div>
<p>In any case, for ordinary people, even if they have begun a spiritual
training, these two ways of thinking arise alternately, and one way of
thinking may interfere with the other. For example, the first process
may unfold until it reaches craving, but then wise reflection steps in
to cut off the process and steer it in a new direction. Or the latter
process may reach the stage of wisdom, yet craving in a new guise
hijacks the process. It can thus occur that the fruits of wisdom are
corrupted to serve the interests of craving. {618}</p>
<p>When those persons who have completed spiritual training think, they
apply analytical reflection (<em>yoniso-manasikāra</em>). When they are not
thinking they abide mindfully in the present moment, that is, they are
attentive to those activities in which they are engaged.</p>
<p>To say that one applies analytical reflection when one thinks also
implies that one applies mindfulness (<em>sati</em>), because wise reflection
is a source of nourishment for mindfulness. When thinking proceeds in a
systematic, purposeful way, attention does not stray or drift aimlessly.
Mindfulness then functions to keep attention on the tasks at hand.</p>
<p>Analytical reflection is thus a key factor in spiritual training,
connected to the essential stage of wisdom development. It is required
for living a virtuous life, helping to solve problems and acting as a
refuge for people.</p>
<p>In the gradual process of wisdom development, wise reflection is part of
a stage beyond faith, because at this stage a person begins to think
independently from others.</p>
<p>Within the system of spiritual training, wise reflection is an internal
factor, connected to the development and application of thought. It can
be defined as a proper method of thinking, methodical thinking, or
analytical thinking, and it has the following attributes: it prevents
one from looking at things superficially; it leads to self-reliance; and
it leads to liberation, freedom from suffering, true peace, and pure
wisdom, which are the highest goals of Buddhism.</p>
<p>The preceding material has presented a general introduction to the two
initial factors of spiritual training: the utterances of others
(<em>paratoghosa</em>), which can also be described as having a virtuous friend
(<em>kalyāṇamitta</em>), which is an external factor and a matter dealing with
faith; and wise reflection (<em>yoniso-manasikāra</em>), which is an internal
factor and a matter dealing with wisdom.</p>
<p>From here on in this chapter the focus will be solely on wise
reflection, to elucidate the methods of thinking distinctive to
Buddha-Dhamma. {619}</p>
<h2 id="importance-of-wise-reflection"><a class="header" href="#importance-of-wise-reflection">Importance of Wise Reflection</a></h2>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, just as the dawn is the forerunner and precursor of the rising
of the sun, so too, the fulfilment of wise reflection
(yoniso-manasikāra) is the forerunner and precursor for the arising of
the Noble Eightfold Path for a monk. It is to be expected of a monk
who has brought wise reflection to completion that he will develop and
cultivate the Noble Eightfold Path.</p>
<p><em>S. V. 31.</em></p>
<p>Monks, just as the dawn’s silver and golden light is the precursor to
the rising of the sun, so too, for a monk wise reflection is the
forerunner and precursor for the arising of the seven factors of
enlightenment. When a monk is accomplished in wise reflection, it is
to be expected that he will develop and cultivate the seven factors of
enlightenment.</p>
<p><em>S. V. 79.</em></p>
<p>Monks, just as this body is sustained by nutriment, subsists in
dependence on nutriment, and cannot subsist without nutriment, so too
the five hindrances are sustained by nutriment, subsist in dependence
on nutriment, and cannot subsist without nutriment. And what is
[their] nutriment?: … a frequent lack of wise reflection….</p>
<p>Monks, just as this body is sustained by nutriment, subsists in
dependence on nutriment, and cannot subsist without nutriment, so too
the seven factors of enlightenment are sustained by nutriment, subsist
in dependence on nutriment, and cannot subsist without nutriment. And
what is [their] nutriment?: … a repeated application of wise
reflection.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn3-1"><a href="#fn-fn3">3</a></sup></p>
<p><em>S. V. 64-7.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, by careful attention (yoniso-manasikāra), by careful right
striving (yoniso-sammappadhāna), I arrived at unsurpassed liberation,
I realized unsurpassed liberation. You too, by careful attention, by
careful right striving, shall arrive at unsurpassed liberation, shall
realize unsurpassed liberation. {620}</p>
<p><em>Vin. I. 23; S. I. 105.</em></p>
<p>Monks, I say that the destruction of the taints is for one who knows
and sees, not for one who does not know and see. Who knows and sees
what? Wise attention and unwise attention.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn4-1"><a href="#fn-fn4">4</a></sup> When one attends
unwisely, unarisen taints arise and arisen taints increase. When one
attends wisely, unarisen taints do not arise and arisen taints are
abandoned.</p>
<p><em>M. I. 7.</em></p>
<p>Monks, whatever states there are that are wholesome, partaking of the
wholesome, pertaining to the wholesome, they are all rooted in wise
reflection, converge upon wise reflection, and wise reflection is
declared to be the chief among them.</p>
<p><em>S. V. 91.</em></p>
<p>See here, Mahāli, greed … hatred … delusion … unwise reflection
… wrongly directed attention is the cause, the condition, for evil
actions, for the existence of evil. Non-greed … non-hatred …
non-delusion … wise reflection … rightly directed attention is the
cause, the condition, for virtuous actions, for the existence of
virtuous actions.</p>
<p><em>A. V. 86-7.</em></p>
<p>No other thing do I know which is so responsible for causing unarisen
wholesome states to arise and arisen unwholesome states to wane as
wise reflection. In one who reflects wisely wholesome states not yet
arisen will arise and unwholesome states that have arisen will wane.</p>
<p><em>A. I. 13.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>No other thing do I know which is so conducive to great benefit …</p>
<p><em>A. I. 16.</em></p>
<p>… which is so conducive for the stability, non-decline, and
non-disappearance of the true Dhamma as wise reflection.</p>
<p><em>A. I. 18.</em></p>
<p>In regard to internal factors, no other thing do I know which is so
conducive to great benefit as wise reflection.</p>
<p><em>A. I. 17; cf.: S. V. 101.</em></p>
<p>For a monk who is still in training, who has not yet realized the
fruit of arahantship, and who aspires to the unsurpassed security from
bondage I do not see any other internal factor that is so helpful as
wise reflection. A monk who applies wise reflection is able to
eliminate the unwholesome and to cultivate the wholesome.</p>
<p><em>It. 9-10.</em></p>
<p>I do not see any other thing so conducive for generating unarisen
right view or for increasing arisen right view as wise reflection. In
one who reflects wisely unarisen right view will arise and arisen
right view will increase.</p>
<p><em>A. I. 31.</em></p>
<p>I do not see any other thing so conducive for generating unarisen
enlightenment factors or for bringing arisen enlightenment factors to
completion as wise reflection. In one who reflects wisely unarisen
enlightenment factors will arise and arisen enlightenment factors will
be brought to completion. {621}</p>
<p><em>A. I. 14-15.</em></p>
<p>No other thing do I know on account of which unarisen doubt does not
arise and arisen doubt is abandoned as much as on account of wise
attention.</p>
<p><em>A. I. 4-5.</em></p>
<p>For one who attends properly to signs of impurity, unarisen lust will
not arise and arisen lust will be abandoned…. For one who attends
properly to the liberation of the mind by lovingkindness, unarisen
hatred will not arise and arisen hatred will be abandoned…. For one
who attends properly to [all] things, unarisen delusion will not
arise and arisen delusion will be abandoned.</p>
<p><em>A. I. 201.</em></p>
<p>When one attends wisely, unarisen sensual desire … ill-will …
sloth and torpor … restlessness and worry … doubt does not arise and
arisen sensual desire … doubt is abandoned. At the same time the
unarisen enlightenment factor of mindfulness … the unarisen
enlightenment factor of equanimity arises and the arisen enlightenment
factor of mindfulness … equanimity comes to fulfilment.</p>
<p><em>S. V. 85.</em></p>
<p>There are nine things that are greatly supportive and which are rooted
in wise reflection: when one possesses wise reflection, joy arises;
when one is joyful, delight arises; when one experiences delight, the
body is relaxed and tranquil; when the body is relaxed, one
experiences happiness; for one who is happy, the mind is concentrated;
when the mind is concentrated, one knows and sees according to the
truth; when one knows and sees according to the truth, one becomes
disenchanted; with disenchantment one becomes dispassionate; by
dispassion one is liberated.</p>
<p><em>D. III. 288.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<h2 id="definition-of-wise-reflection"><a class="header" href="#definition-of-wise-reflection">Definition of Wise Reflection</a></h2>
<p>The compound term <em>yoniso-manasikāra</em> is made up of the two words
<em>yoniso</em> and <em>manasikāra</em>.</p>
<p><em>Yoniso</em> is derived from the word <em>yoni</em> (’origin’, ’place of birth’,
’womb’) and is variously translated as ’cause’, ’root’, ’source’,
’wisdom’, ’method’, ’means’, or ’path’. (See
Note <a href="#note-yoniso-path">Yoniso: A Means and a Path</a>)</p>
<p><em>Manasikāra</em> is translated as ’mental activity’, ’thinking’,
’consideration’, ’reflection’, ’directing attention’, or
’contemplation’. (See
Note <a href="#note-manasikara-synonyms">Synonyms of Manasikāra</a>)</p>
<p>As a compound the term <em>yoniso-manasikāra</em> is traditionally defined as
’skilfully directing attention’. The commentaries and sub-commentaries
elaborate on this definition and explain the nuances of this term by
presenting various synonyms, as follows:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn5-1"><a href="#fn-fn5">5</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Upāya-manasikāra</em>: ’methodical reflection’; to think or reflect by
using proper means or methods; systematic thinking. This refers to
methodical thinking that enables one to realize and exist in harmony
with the truth, and to penetrate the nature and characteristics of
all phenomena. {622}</p>
</li>